The REAL TRUTH about "the truth"
Life and Ministry of William Irvine

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CHAPTERS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
Chapter Index

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Chapter 20
Revised Dec. 21, 2009

Wars & Conscientious Objection Military Service - The Draft - Conscription
Taking an Official Name
Conscientious Objectors
USA & World War I
USA & World War II
The Korean Conflict
The Vietnam War
Why are the 2x2s Pacifist?

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Chapter 20

Introduction

The Price of Conscience
The military had little patience with the so-called “conchies.” What did the workers do? Were they exempted? What did the friends do? Were any friends/workers killed in the war? Did any go to prison? How did they serve their country?

NOTE:  Since the author is an American, this chapter is primarily written from an American perspective.   Information regarding other countries is welcome. 

NOTE:   This purpose of this chapter is to illustrate the challenges many were faced in the decision-making process regarding military service, since the workers did not issue specific written guidelines or instructions for participation.  Nothing the author has written in this chapter is intended to judge or diminish the sacrifice or decision of any veteran or POW, for this could not be further from the truth! My father, D. Raymond Berry, from Henderson, Texas, chose to be a Conscientious Objector in World War II and served as a army medic for 3-1/2 years.  I also have three professing 2x2 uncles who were soldiers and another uncle who was a POW in the Philippines in World War II.   The sacrifice of every man in the wars, whether serving as a combatant or noncombatant, is held in the highest regard by the author.

NOTE:  It is important to realize that every country has its own body of laws concerning military service.  These laws were not permanent institutions--that is, they changed frequently through time, wars, governments, etc.   What is/was the case in your country may or may not have been the case in another country.   For instance, in World War II, Great Britain allowed Conscientious Objectors, while France and Germany executed them, and New Zealand imprisoned them.

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Taking an Official Name

Although the attendees did not know it would be so at the time, the last large scale Crocknacrieve convention was held in 1913. In 1914, Britain declared war on Germany and World War I began. The British government began to require all men of military age to register.  Military Draft, also called “conscription,” is a system of selecting men for required military service.  Since ancient times, governments have conscripted men whenever they needed larger military forces than they felt they could get through voluntary enlistments.

“There was yet another major change which took place in the fellowship in 1914. This was the year the First World War broke out, and all of military age were required to register. In doing so, it was necessary to state one's religion.” (Life & Ministry of Edward Cooney 1867-1960 by Patricia Roberts, p 119)

The workers in Great Britain had something new to consider and to render a decision about.  This was the first time the situation of war and military service had been encountered since the group had started. What position would they take? What military classification would they encourage their male converts to seek? How would the male workers serve in the military?  Military service is divided into combatant and noncombatant service.  To refuse to serve in either resulted in imprisonment. Would the professing men:

(1)  become soldiers bearing arms?  (combatant)
(2)  refuse to serve in the military altogether?  (absolutist=imprisonment)
(3)  serve in noncombatant military service? (noncombatant)
(4)  refuse to pay taxes used for the purchase of arms?

Eventually, after much internal controversy among the workers, the sect was registered with the Conscientious Objectors Board in Great Britain under the name of "The Testimony of Jesus.”  Edward Cooney’s biographer, Patricia Roberts, wrote about this event taking place:

“And although the fellowship had a variety of nicknames, such as Pilgrims, Tramp Preachers, Go Preachers, Dippers, Cooneyites, it had no legal or official name. These nicknames were given it by outsiders but the members of the fellowship did not use any of them.  Without adopting it as a name, however, they did refer to themselves as the 'Testimony of Jesus,' often shortened to 'Testimony.'  We do not know who introduced this name, but it was in use by members in referring to themselves early in the movement's history.

“Since they were by conviction pacifists, they wished to register as Conscientious Objectors. The problem was what to call themselves…(Willie) Gill who was the head worker in England at the time, said, ‘Let us take the name we call ourselves by, the ‘Testimony of Jesus.' Thus in 1914, the fellowship in the British Isles, officially took the name of 'Testimony of Jesus,' and was duly listed as such with the Conscientious Objectors Board. Edward (Cooney) was chosen to represent them before a judge in London so as to obtain the status of conscientious objector for the brethren of military age. He succeeded in getting this for the workers, but not for the saints, some of whom had to go to prison for their convictions.” (Life & Ministry of Edward Cooney 1867-1960 by Patricia Roberts, p 119)

Ed Cooney  wrote:  "In 1914 when all of military age were required to register, Andy Robb registered himself as Independent Faith Mission.  I registered myself as Christian, and advised Willie Gill to council all to do likewise, but he said ‘Let us take the name we call ourselves by ‘The Testimony of Jesus.’ At that time I am sorry to say I used to go contrary to my conscience, to avoid differing from my fellow workers.  I gave in to Willie in this respect and so erred, but have confessed my sin to God, and God has forgiven me. We have committed the same sin in the U.S.A. in calling ourselves ‘Christian Conventions.’ We should repent and take the consequences." (Edward Cooney’s Testimony from Selected Letters Hymns and Poems of Edward Cooney 1867-1960, edited by Patricia Roberts, pp. 43-45)

Fred Wood wrote:  "Our brethren, separated from us, hold the name here of  'Testimony of Jesus'; and this name was registered at the War Office during World War I in order to save workers from being called up for the army.  At the same time, some of the saints were put in prison for being conscientious objectors. However, it is important that we have the testimony of Jesus, the true and faithful witness, in ourselves."   (Letter to Fred Hanowell by Fred Wood, Belfast, N. Ireland, circa 1967; The Go Preacher Movement - An Anthology by Patricia Roberts)

There was no convention held at Crocknacrieve in 1912 probably because of the political tensions of that time. Though some pilgrims did sign the Ulster Covenant, most were pacifists, a stance which would not have been popular then. Since they were not a recognised religious denomination, many would be imprisoned during the coming war as conscientious objectors. ("Ballinamallard--A Place of Importance," Ballinamallard Historical Society, 2004, p 64-72)

Apparently, the pacifist stand the workers decided to uphold was not derived from teachings of William Irvine.  Upon learning about it, he wrote:

"I enclose a cutting from Auckland [New Zealand] showing their attitude towards military service.  Very far from all I taught.  The whole Old Testament shows that the Jesus of the New Testament was the Lord of Hosts who never failed to be with the Nations that used the sword against those who used the sword wickedly, and Pacifism is the worst form of delusion one could imagine, and proves them to be just as blind to who Jehovah of the Old Testament was and is, as are the Jews concerning the Jesus of the New Testament.  How can a man fear God and honor the King and refuse to pay his share in money and service in defence of his country and home?  It's just as unchristian to refuse to use the sword of the Lord of Hosts against the sword of the wicked one, as it would be to take the sword of the wicked aggression against others.

"Zech. 14:3 shows that the Lord will go forth and fight against those who take Jerusalem, as in days gone by, and that by the Christian nations in vengeance of God against the Moslem World...God not only made all men of one blood, but He also fixed the bounds of their habitations, making it a sacred duty of every man that wants to dwell in any part of the world to be willing to defend their frontiers and rights as he would defend his own family, blood, or home.  The method of doing this must be determined by his willingness and ability, but no man can escape the responsibility and have the Spirit of God in him.  Neither can a man have the Spirit of Christ or God and do violence to his neighbor's landmark consciously. Those who take the sword in defence of the Man of God shall perish by the sword, for God cannot honor or protect such, but will leave them to the consequences of their own.  Non-resistance is the way of bringing God to our deliverance.  To use this as an argument against warfare in defence of our Land and Home is to prostitute the words of Jesus."  (Wm. Irvine's Letter to Edwards, August 31, 1923)

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Conscientious Objectors

UNITED STATES:  “Classification” is the process of determining who is available for military service and who is deferred or exempted.  (For a list of all U.S. Selective Service System Classifications, see: http://www.sss.gov/classif.htm)  The American workers approved the classification 1-A-O, defined:  “Conscientious Objector:  conscientiously opposed to training and military service requiring the use of arms; fulfills his service obligation in a noncombatant position within the military.”

“’Conscientious Objector,’ in the United States, is a term applied to an individual who, out of personal moral conviction, opposes war and his own participation in armed combat.” (Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2000 at: http://encarta.msn.com)  Commonly abbreviated “C.O.,” this term refers to a person who refuses in varying degrees to conform to the state or society’s requirements on moral or religious grounds to bear arms in a military conflict or to serve in the armed forces; one whose scruples will not allow him to assist in the waging of war.  These men were nicknamed “Conchies” by some.

“Conscientious objection…is the collision of convictions--the individual’s belief that he must not violate the voice of his conscience or the word of his God, and the state’s assertion that it must preserve its own viability, by force of arms when need be, and that this heavy burden is for all citizens to share.” (Conscience in America-A Documentary History of Conscientious Objection in America 1757-1967; pub 1968;  Edited by Lillian Schlissel p.15)

GREAT BRITAIN set up a program of alternative civilian service for objectors in World War I.  There were approximately 16,000 objectors of various types.  Of these 5,000 accepted alternative civilian service; 1200 worked in Friends Ambulance Unit overseas, 3,400 entered noncombatant work in the army and navy…the tribunals denied the claims of about 6,000 objectors. These were tried and sent to prison.  Later on, the government worked out an arrangement where those sent to prison would be offered civilian work outside prison but under penal regulations. The remaining 1,500, however, continued as absolutists, and some suffered severe privations.  About 900 served prison sentences of two years or more, and 10 died in prison.  Thirty-one of the absolutists became insane as a direct result of their experiences.  (Conscription of Conscience – The American State and the Conscientious Objector 1940-1947;  by Mulford Q. Sibley and Philip E. Jacob, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY, 1952; pp 2-3)

John Long wrote regarding World War I in the United Kingdom:  "About that time, Conscription was in force by law in England and young men of every rank and age from twenty one to forty were compelled to go into military service except a clause in the act exempting conscientious objectors from active service; but compelling them to undertake service attached to war; thus genuine conscientious objectors were under the condemnation of the law while refusing to have anything to do with war and many good Christian young men were sent to prison and some were badly treated; some confined for two years, not to the credit of England; while at the same time lawless and sinful Sinn Fienes, in Ireland were set free from prison." (From:  John Long's Journal for February, 1916)

During World War II, the laws and regulations developed for C.O.s in Great Britain were the most elaborate and far reaching in the world.  In 1939, Great Britain established conscription.  The National Service Act of 1939 established a separate Register for Conscientious Objectors.  Objection could be for any reason. Great Britain provided for noncombatant, alternative civilian service and absolutist objection.

EUROPEAN COUNTRIES:   In World War I and II, there were no provisions in Germany or France for conscientious objectors—they were considered traitors and faced the firing squad.

“…it is remarkable that hardly any provisions for conscientious objectors existed in the laws of Continental Europe’s major nations...However, by the beginning of WW2, formal recognition of the objection on the Continent (Europe) seems to have been confined to Scandinavia and the Netherlands.“

“Several (British) objectors were sent to France with the army where, under military law, they could be sentenced to death for refusal to serve.  Thirty-four actually received the death sentence and were saved only because many in Great Britain had heard of their plight and petitioned for commutation.”  (Conscription of Conscience – The American State and the Conscientious Objector 1940-1947;  by Mulford Q. Sibley and Philip E. Jacob, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY, 1952, pp 2-3, 16)

Therefore, some workers, such as Orin Taylor, head worker of France in WWII, advised the friends to take up arms, but not to kill; to fire in the air over the enemy’s heads, or not to fire their weapons as ordered.

Some of the German friends and brother and sister workers were imprisoned.  According to the Account of  Pauline Schnitzer, it started when a German brother worker was called to become a soldier:

"We knew very well when our brother Fritz Schwille was called to arms and refused to become a soldier and had to appear before a war tribunal that it would bring trouble and suffering to all of us.  He was sentenced to death.  His sister Frieda and I visited him twice in Berlin, and it was a touching experience when we passed the Iron Gate, which closed behind us. Twice we got, permission to talk with him for 10 minutes, in the presence of 3 officials.  Fritz talked with trembling lips, but in spite of the sad circumstances, he tried to comfort and encourage us to keep faithful and our hearts were deeply moved and touched. The officials watched and listened and were astonished by the words and spirit of Fritz and overlooked that the 10 minutes had passed long ago and so both times we had 20 minutes with him.  Fritz was considered a dangerous criminal and spent 3 months in the cell of the death candidates. During this time he wrote some heart moving and helpful letters to us. Later on, he was released and sent to the Russian front and disappeared and we never heard again from him and we do not know what happened.  This was in the summer of 1942 and then in the fall of '42 our whole church was prohibited any more meetings, no coming together, no letter writing, no visits and the workers were forced to work in factories, etc. In June 1944, The Gestapo arrested Frieda Schwille, sister of Fritz and a week later the Larderer girls and myself [Pauline Schnitzer]. The 72-year-old aunt of Fritz and his cousin and some others were also arrested and put into prison. We were taken to Stuttgart into a cell full of box beds, with a crowd of other people. We didn't know why we were there. Many innocent people were there and we saw misery, sorrow, tears and suffering and hunger too."  (FROM:  A Little of my Experiences at Stuttgart by Pauline Schnitzer)

According to the Account of Luise and Sofie Laderer:  "First of all, the reason of our imprisonment. One of our German workers, Fritz Schwille, refused to take up arms, therefore was put into prison for about 1 year, where he had to suffer much.  He was condemned to death, but then was given the choice to be a stretcher-bearer and so was sent to the Russian front lines.  Various reports were then circulated about him, and from that time we were sharply watched."   [FROM:  Account of Luise and Sofie Laderer's Prison Experiences in WWII]

Another worker German brother worker, Werner Gebhardt, was sent for "2 years in a concentration camp. Werner was the last companion of Fritz, and I [Pauline Schnitzer] was Frieda's companion during the first 2 years in the Work."  The Laderer girls wrote: "Poor Frieda always had the feeling she would not come home and 10 days after our release, she was taken to "Dachau" and had to give her life."  and Pauline Schnitzer wrote that sister worker Freida Schwille "was killed by the Gestapo on 30th Nov. 1944." 

AUSTRALIA:  In 1901, the six colonies became states of the Commonwealth of Australia, keeping the British monarch as head of state.  Thus, when Britain entered World War I in 1914, Australia entered the war on the side of Great Britain.  The same was true in World War II. Certificates bearing the name The United Christian Conventions of Australasia and New Zealand were used to prove the brother workers were ordained ministers in WWII in Australia and New Zealand.

Fred Hanowell wrote:  "In Australia, for instance, the fellowship split into three divisions, two of them united again, calling themselves, 'The United Christian Conventions, Representing Assemblies of Christians Assuming That Name Only'"  I got to know about it at my first convention around 1957, as I attended one in South Germany. It gave me a terrible shock as I read that letter which informed me of the 'Name-giving' and 'Registration.' I do not know when such is registered in Germany but I have a copy of a letter set up by those older workers, in which all countries are mentioned in which workers were at that time, Germany included, also the number or how many workers were active there. Hence ALL countries and ALL believers in every land were included in that registration and NAMEGIVING." (Letter to Fred and Ruth Miller by Fred Hanowell, circa 1971)

CANADA conscripted troops during World War I and II, but after each war, the Canadian armed services returned to all-volunteer forces. It should be noted that to be a C.O. in Canada, one had to be a volunteer; if you were conscripted, you did not have a choice.

“Canadian conscription differed from most compulsory service laws during the Second World War in that no one could be conscripted for service outside Canada…Conscientious objection was, then, to military service at home.  Regulations provided ‘postponement’ of service for those who conscientiously objected ‘by reason of religious training and belief to war in any form and to participation in combatant military service.’  Those granted postponement as objectors were offered the opportunity to serve in the medical corps of the army, and some two hundred thousand chose to do so." (Conscription of Conscience – The American State and the Conscientious Objector 1940-1947;  by Mulford Q. Sibley and Philip E. Jacob, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY, 1952; pp 8-9)

A statement dated July 14, 1940, was made by J.T.C. (John T. "Jack" Carroll) at a Sunday Morning Meeting in Theodore, Saskatchewan, Canada, concerning an impending Canadian government requirement for a national registration. Click here to read this statement found in TTT Photo Gallery 18.

Reportedly, Hugh Roberts, an early Canadian Worker originally from Enniskillen, N, Ireland, was conscripted for World War I.  He refused to wear a uniform and was sent to a Canadian concentration camp.  While in camp, he wrote the hymn in "Hymns Old and New": “Strong in the Strength of Gentleness.”

NEW ZEALAND:  “Compulsory military training began in New Zealand  in 1911.  During World War I, the law exempted only those who were members of a religious body having as one of its tenets objection to arms-bearing; and even then noncombatant service in the army was required.  Altogether, about 400 were sentenced to prison, for terms ranging up to two years…During the second World War, all those who held ‘a genuine belief that it is wrong to engage in warfare in any circumstances’ were exempt; and provision was made for alternative civilian service.”  (Conscription of Conscience – The American State and the Conscientious Objector 1940-1947;  by Mulford Q. Sibley and Philip E. Jacob, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY, 1952;  p 7).

In New Zealand, they also adopted the name of “Testimony of Jesus,” and twenty-eight men of military age bearing this name were imprisoned during World War I. "Only Quakers and Christadelphians could produce the necessary written constitution opposing military service.  After importing written evidence from America, in July, 1917, Seventh-day Adventists joined this select group.  Other sects possessed only an unwritten tradition of pacifists biblical interpretation which, when it was later ruled that written evidence was not necessary, the relative autonomy of their churches and theological idiosyncrasies of many of their members made it impossible to substantiate.  The largest of these, the Testimony of Jesus, had 28 imprisoned objectors by the war's end." (King and Country Call - New Zealanders, Conscription and the Great War by Paul Baker p. 170-175; Auckland University Press, 1988).

In New Zealand during World War II, the friends were called Christian Assemblers, and called "CA's" for short.  David Grand wrote about them:

“The vast majority of military defaulters tolerated and learned to live within the detention camp system. Christian fundamentalists, particularly, accommodated themselves with ease. The Christian Assemblies, a scattered, largely rural-based sect, had the largest number of men in detention from any church group. While nominally free to make up their own minds, the 122 Christian Assembly conscience appellants represented nearly 100 percent of members who had been called up in the ballot. Of those whose appeals were denied, only two opted for noncombatant service when they had the chance. The rest went to camp. One Christian Assembler arrived at Strathmore in the middle of 1942 and spent three years dispensing and collecting clothes in the camp store:

 ‘Our appeals were not allowed by a properly constituted court, so we accepted the next stage as gracefully as we could. Our attitude was one of cooperation. We didn't see anything in the detention camp setup that conflicted with our conscience. We were there by choice, not force...we could have gone to the war.

‘We accepted our position.  I guess there was a kind of  "follow the leader" attitude amongst newcomer CAs.  We were working hard. The newcomers did too. We were influenced partly in this by a Bible scripture that read: "I've learned, in whatsoever state I am, therewith to be content." I worked hard on the fencing gang and in the store. My attitude was that I had to go back into society one day and I didn't want to be dejected, or morose, but keep my mind alert so I would be well fitted when I got out.’”  (Out in the Cold, Pacifists & Conscientious Objectors in New Zealand during World War II by David Grant, Reed Methuen Publishers Ltd, Auckland, NZ, ISBN 0474001210.)

Certificates bearing the name The United Christian Conventions of Australasia and New Zealand were used to prove the brother workers were ordained ministers in WWII in Australia and New Zealand.

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USA & World War I

The U.S. has used a draft during the Civil War, World War I, World War II, the Korean War and the Vietnam War.
The Selective Service Act of 1917 was used during World War I.
The Selective Service System was created in 1940; and:
The Selective Service Act of 1940 was used in World War II and was suspended in 1948.
The Selective Service Act of 1940 was amended in 1951 and used in the Korean War.
The Selective Service Act of 1967 was used in the Vietnam War

 From 1948 until 1973, during both peacetime and periods of conflict, men were drafted to fill vacancies in the armed forces which could not be filled through voluntary means.  In 1973, conscription was abolished and the U.S. converted to an all-volunteer military. The registration requirement was suspended in April 1975. It was resumed again in 1980 by President Carter in response to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. Since 1981, all American men have been required to register for the draft when they reached the age of 18.  If there were to be a crisis, registered men would be inducted as determined by age and a random lottery.  (Reference Selective Service System:  http://www.sss.gov/ Select:  Backgrounds)

WORLD WAR I:  The assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary triggered World War I.  “An assassin’s bullets set off the war, and a system of military alliances (agreements) lunged the main European powers into the fight.  Each side expected quick victory.  But the war lasted four years and took the lives of nearly 10 million troops.”  (World Book Encyclopedia, 1988 p 454)

At the outbreak of the World War I in Europe in 1914, the U.S. resolved to stay out of this conflict.   However, in 1915, after the German sinking of the British ship, Lisutania, with over 100 Americans among its more than 1,200 lost passengers, President Woodrow Wilson finally brought the U.S. into World War I on April 6, 1917, giving the Allies the manpower they needed to win the war.  World War I war ended on November 11, 1918, with U.S. involvement of one year and 7 months.

So long as the USA fought its wars with volunteer armies, the government had no need to deal with men who refused to bear arms. The problem of the Conscientious Objector surfaced for the first time when conscription into the armed forces became mandatory in World War I.  In the USA, general conscription was reintroduced on May 18, 1917, and all men from 21 to 30 years of age (later extended 18 to 45) were required to register. "Exemptions from service were granted to men who had dependent families, indispensable duties at home, or physical disabilities. Conscientious objector status was granted to members of pacifist religious organizations, but they had to perform alternative service. Other war objectors were imprisoned, where several died.  By the end of World War I about 2,800,000 men had been inducted.”  ("Conscientious Objector," Microsoft® Encarta® Online Encyclopedia 2000© 1993-2000 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.  http://encarta.msn.com © 1997-2000)

The Selective Service Act of 1917 contained rather narrow provisions for conscientious objection during World War I.  Conscientious Objector status was provided ONLY for those who were members of  “well recognized” religious organizations whose creeds forbade participation in war, and they had to perform alternative service.  The law read:

“Classification Rules and Principles, section 79, rule XIV.—Any registrant who is found by a local board to be a member of any well-recognized religious sect or organization organized and existing May 18, 1917, and whose then existing creed or principles forbid its members to participate in war in any form, and whose religious convictions are against war or participation therein in accordance with the creed or principles of said religious organizations, shall be furnished by such local board with a certificate (Form 1008, sec. 280, p.225) to that effect and to the further effect that, by the terms of section 4 of the Selective Service law, he can only be required to serve in a capacity declared by the President to be non-combatant. He shall be classified, however, as is any other registrant; but he shall be designated upon all classifications, forms, records, certificates, and other writings of local and district boards in which his name appears by the insertion of a cipher (0) after his name.”

They were required to complete a Selective Service Questionnaire (Click here to Read Questionnaire)  to claim exemption from combatant service, and if found to qualify, they were to be issued a Certificate of Exemption from Combatant Service (Click here to read Certificate). 

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In World War I, altogether, there were 2,810,296 men inducted into the U.S. armed forces.  Approximately 4,000 of these were Conscientious Objectors, who served in the Medical Corps, the Quartermaster Corps and the Engineer Service.

“The men who claimed exemption as conscientious objectors during the First World War were a varied group.  The ranks of the Quakers and Mennonites had been swelled by new waves of immigration that brought Molokans, Doukhabours, Seventh Day Adventists, Jehovah’s Witnesses, Russellites and Christadelphians, and the Hutterian, Plymouth and River Brethren to the United States,  The Molokans, in fact, had come all the way from Russia for the express purpose of avoiding army service.”  (Conscience in America-A Documentary History of Conscientious Objection in America 1757-1967; pub 1968;  Edited by Lillian Schlissel; pp 129-130)

THE ABSOLUTISTS:  Those who refused to serve in the military (called “Absolutists”) were marched off to prison.  The federal military prisons in the United States, called “Disciplinary Barracks,” were located at Fort Jay, Governors Island, New York; Fort Leavenworth, Kansas and Alcatraz Island, San Francisco Bay, California, with Leavenworth being the chief military federal prison.

“To steal, rape, murder, to slap an officer’s face and call him a son of a bitch—these are the standard peace-time entrance requirements to the Disciplinary Barracks.  But in time of war, too firm a belief in the words of Christ, too ardent a faith in the brotherhood of man, is even more acceptable.” (Essay: I Refuse to Serve by Roderick Seidenberg; Conscience in America-A Documentary History of Conscientious Objection in America 1757-1967, pub 1968;  Edited by Lillian Schlissel; pp. 138-141)

Some believed that going to prison was less damaging to the soul than war, and considered their refusal to serve as “holy disobedience.”  Some went to prison and willingly performed work or tasks given to them. Others, the Absolutists,  refused to work or do anything whatsoever while in prison.  The following may help to explain why some objectors refused to work:

“In certain cases, the objectors felt that the work assigned to them amounted to the non-combatant service which they had refused in the first place because it relieved other men to do the very work in the army to which they were conscientiously opposed.  Other objectors considered that the mere acceptance of work under military orders was a recognition of the whole principle of conscription which they are convinced must be everywhere condemned before the world can ever become safe for real democracy.”  (Conscience in America--A Documentary History of Conscientious Objection in America 1757-1967; pub 1968; Edited by Lillian Schlissel, p 151)

Many of the Absolutist were given 10-30 year and even life sentences for their loyalty to their ideals, and their sentences did not end when the war ended.  “The military courts were severe with ‘absolutists’ who refused all cooperation with the army.  There were 17 death sentences, 142 life terms, and 345 sentences, where the average term was 16-1/2 years.  None of the death penalties was carried out, and 185 of the sentences were eventually reduced, but it was not until 1933 that the last full pardon was issued by President Roosevelt and the last conscientious objector of World War I was released from prison.” (Conscience in America-A Documentary History of Conscientious Objection in America 1757-1967; pub 1968;  Edited by Lillian Schlissel;  p 131). [NOTE:  1933 is 15 years after the war ended!]

The Absolutists prisoners soon found that prison has its own prison.  They were sent to solitary confinement in a pitch dark cell with a diet of bread and water, manacled standing to the bars of their cells for nine hours a day, and slept on the bare cement floor.  Many were brutally beaten and tortured. On December 6, 1918, the Secretary of War declared that prisoners of the Army were no longer to be manacled.

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Following is a firsthand account by an American professing man, Lewis Murray, who suffered considerably for his choice to serve his country as Conscientious Objector in World War I.  He mentions two other 2x2 veterans also.  Lewis Murray became a worker after being discharged from the service.
. A Few of LEWIS  MURRAY'S Experiences in World War I

"I don't want to be a hero. Anyone would have done what I did, under the same circumstances.  I was drafted into the Army in 1918, in Bent County, Colo. At that time, I knew the McArthurs in Las Animas, Colo.  Will Wilkie was the first worker I met. There were three Wilkie brothers in the work at that time; Frank, Will and Rensler.  Eva Thompson was the first sister worker I met.  She was like a mother to me.  After the first meeting, she came over and talked to me personally, and that won my confidence in her, and when I had a problem, I always went to Eva for advice.

"The time came when I was drafted, and I asked the workers and friends what I should do.  At that time, there were no provisions made for Conscientious Objectors, like there is today, and it wasn't clear what a person should do when they were drafted.  I finally said I would go and accept the equipment, all except the gun, and would take my stand as a C.O.

"I learned that Earl Huckleberry had refused the uniform and gun and was sent to the Leavenworth Prison [Kansas]. There he learned the trade of tent-making and was good at the sewing machine. He served his time there in prison.

"When I was drafted, I had a document signed by President Woodrow Wilson, explaining my position.  I knew that in the Army there were a lot of non-combatant services. Oliver Taylor (Orin Taylor's brother) was a kind of a natural doctor, and he went into the Medics.  I had this document and the Local Board knew I was a Conscientious Objector.  Some of the boys who went into the Army were cowards and some fanatics, who claimed to be C.O's.

"The first place they sent me was to Camp Cody, New Mexico, and there they didn't have enough beds or bedding, and I spent two or three nights on the blanket they gave me, lying out on the sand.  Each night the sand blew and almost covered me up and I got pneumonia. Then they sent me to the hospital where I almost died. My mother, Mrs. Zebulun Murray, came to the hospital to help me get well, and I soon pulled out of it.  After I got out of the hospital, they wanted me to go into the Infantry, and I knew it was to fight, so I produced my document, and from there they sent me to the psychiatrist ward and examined me.  They said I was alright, and the only thing the doctor could see was that I just didn't want to fight.

"After that, they sent me to the Captain of the Infantry and I went to him with my document, signed by the President, and he took it and stuck it in a pigeon-hole in his desk and I never saw that document again.  He then asked me to obey orders.  I accepted the uniform, the canteen and the blanket, but I would not take the rifle.  So the Lieutenant gave me over to a Sargeant and two Corporals, who put me in a tent and they knocked me around, and finally knocked me so much that I fainted.  Then they were afraid they had done something serious and so two of them took me to the hospital and laid me on the floor.  They told the Lieutenant they tried to make me take a gun and I wouldn’t.  Finally I recovered enough to go back to the tent and spent the night there.

"The next morning the bugle sounded for me to go out to march, but I didn't take a gun, and the Officer noticed I didn't have a gun, so he detailed a couple of the men to take me behind the hill and to give me a flogging to beat me into submission.  The Sargeant who took the gun with him over the hill brought it back, because I would not take it.

"Then they put me in the Guard House and the next morning they sent me down to Headquarters to see the Commander-in-Chief, who asked me several questions. This Officer told me they were getting ready to send me to Leavenworth Prison.  I finally told him, like I had told all the others, that I was willing to do anything for my country, but my conscience would not allow me to take a gun.  Then he said, "If you are willing to work,  we will give you work".  There were a large number of horses in the army, and they sent me to take care of the horses.  There was a lot of feed to haul around to give the horses feed, and I stayed with that until the Armistice was signed.

"For nearly a month after they had given me that last beating in the tent, I had to go back to the doctor to get my wounds dressed. Later on, I learned that one of those who went over the hill to beat me, came to me and offered his apologies.  Some years later, some of the workers met that man out in Washington and he told them he was one of them that had beaten me.  He must have told them he was the one, because I didn't. After the Armistice was signed, they gave me an Honorable Discharge and made me 1st. Class Private.

"After leaving the Army, I soon went with Rensler Wilkie to Pueblo, Colo…I went into the work in the later part of 1918, and at that time I was 23 years old.  I was born in 1895.  There is only a few months difference in my age and Garrett Hughes.  I will be 87 years old on Feb 5, 1983."

NOTE:  The author would very much like to receive other accounts about the experiences of professing World War I Veterans. Please email TTT.

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USA & World War II

World War II actually began on Sept 1, 1939, when Germany invaded Poland.  The hub of United States naval power in the Pacific Ocean is Pearl Harbor Naval Base on the Island of Oahu, Hawaii. On December 7, 1941, a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor by the Japanese forced the United States into World War II.  Under the cover of darkness, from the north of Oahu, the Japanese launched 360 airplanes from 33 ships against the U.S. Pacific fleet in Pearl Harbor.  The first bombs fell about 7:55 a.m..  The chief targets were the eight American battleships, among the 92 naval vessels anchored at the harbor.  Eighteen U.S. ships were sunk or severely damaged, almost 200 planes were destroyed, with about 3,700 casualties. “Remember Pearl Harbor” became the rallying cry for the U.S. in World War II.

World War II was fought on six of the seven continents and on all the seas for 3 years and 8 months. The European Theater ended on May 7, 1945 when the Germans surrendered to the Allies.  The Pacific Theater ended with the surrender of the Japanese on August 15, 1945.  Fifty million people died as a result of World War II.

The US Congress passed the Selective Training and Service Act of 1940 on September 14, 1940.  It formally established the Selective Service System. It is important to keep in mind that the American laws regarding requirements for Conscientious Objector classification have differed in every war since the 2x2 sect has existed.  Forms of alternate service were open to those classified Conscientious Objectors by their draft board.  In World Wars I and II, the United States and Great Britain allowed members of recognized pacifistic religious groups to substitute for combat service:

    1.   noncombatant military service; assignments requiring no carrying or use of arms.
    2.   nonmilitary activity related to the war effort, or
    3.   activity considered socially valuable (Civilian Public Service, abbreviated CPS).

The new Selective Training and Service Act of 1940 was an improvement over World War I.  The definition for Conscientious Objector exemption was broadened from those who were members of  “well recognized” religious organizations whose creeds forbade participation in war, to include those who “by reason of religious training and belief” had become Conscientious Objectors.  This meant that Protestant, Catholic and Jewish C.O.’s would now be recognized, but secular C.O.’s were excluded.  The Conscientious Objector section read:

“Section 5(g):   Nothing contained in this Act shall be construed to require any person to be subject to combatant training and service in the land or naval forces of the United States who, by reason of religious training and belief, if conscientiously opposed to participation in war in any form.

“Any such person claiming such exemption from combatant training and service because of such conscientious objections whose claim is sustained by the local draft board shall, if he is inducted into the land or naval forces under this Act, be assigned to noncombatant service as defined by the President, or shall, if he is found to be conscientiously opposed to participation in such noncombatant service, in lieu of such induction, be assigned to work of national importance under civilian direction.”

American professing men and workers began to be drafted or conscripted into military service.  The general procedure is outlined below.

“The young man who was called up under the Selective Training and Service Act of 1940 did not need to decide at registration whether he was a conscientious objector.  He could, however, indicate his objection on his registration card, although his notation would have no legal effect.  Many objectors did, in fact, explain their objection at this state, feeling no doubt that there should be no question about their position. Another test came, however, when the registrant received the questionnaire sent out by the local board to all registrants, whether they were conscientious objectors or not…known as D.S.S. Form 40, it contained a “Series X” in which the objector could indicate his position on war and through which he could request D.S.S. Form 47, which was the special form for conscientious objectors…He was asked in the questionnaire to submit any documents or letters which might tend to support his claim for objection and to indicate with what religious groups, if any, he had been associated.  The Act, it will be remembered, gave objector status only to those who were opposed to war by reason of 'religious training and belief'; while this did not mean that one had to belong to a religious organization, evidence that one was in fact associated with some type of 'religious' association might help to sustain a claim.”      (Conscription of Conscience – The American State and the Conscientious Objector 1940-1947; by Mulford Q. Sibley and Philip E. Jacob, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY, 1952; p 54)

The request for classification of a Conscientious Objector would then come before the local Selective Service board. The local board was autonomous but answered to the National Selective Service System.  It consisted of three or more members recommended by the state governor and appointed by the President.  All registrants had the right to request personal hearings before the local board, and the right of appeal.  If the board accepted the claim, the objector would receive a classification notice that he had been placed in either Civilian Public Service (CPS) or Conscientious Objector (CO), as the case might be.  If the board denied the applicant objector status, it informed him of the category into which he was placed, and of his right to a personal hearing. Some boards approved requests for CPS or C.O. status almost automatically; while others automatically denied them; some boards were definitely hostile to objectors, and there were many cases in which local boards discriminated against Conscientious Objectors.

While a C.O. applicant did not have to show “membership in a religious organization or sect,” boards seemed to find it easier to make decision in favor of the applicant if he clearly belonged to one of the registered churches which took anti-war positions. In World War II,  C.O.’s were mostly Mennonites, Church of the Brethren, Quakers (Friends), Roman Catholics,  Jehovah’s Witnesses, Christadelphians, with Seventh-Day Adventist being the largest single group.  The largest group of those who were imprisoned were the Jehovah’s Witnesses absolutists, who refused to participate in any form of service whatsoever. The maximum sentence allowable by law for Selective Service violation was five years and $10,000.00.  The average sentence was 35 months.  C.O.’s in prison were eligible for parole on the same basis as other prisoners.  In contrast to World War I, C.O.’s generally reported that prison conditions were acceptable, or at least as good as could be expected.

The number of Conscientious Objectors in the U.S. has always been relatively small compared with total numbers of men summoned for induction.  When the United States entered World War II, from 1940 until 1947, over 10,000,000 men were inducted.  The total number of conscientious objectors in World War II was approx 43,000;  of which 25,000 were noncombatants; 12,000 entered CPS; and 6,000 were imprisoned.

The Selective Service System was flexible for Conscientious Objectors who changed status during World War II. They were delighted to transfer CO's in CPS to military service; noncombatant or combatant and prison was theirs for the asking.  C.O.’s in prison could leave for the army or CPS at any time.  Noncombatants could discard their C.O. status for full military service; but movement in the opposite direction was difficult, unless they were willing to risk court-martial; the same was true for regular soldiers who developed conscientious objections after they were inducted.  Larry Greenaway, a Vietnam veteran and brother worker wrote:

“One recollection that is still vivid to me was when I arrived in…Vietnam.  Those who were noncombatants or medics like myself were given opportunity to take a M-16 rifle, if they desired.  Medics, however, were allowed to take an M-16 AND a .45 pistol.” (Ft. Sam Houston Army Reunion 1965-1972 Memory Book; San Antonio, Texas)

Reportedly, in or around 1938, before World War II, a large scale Workers Meeting was held in Baltimore, Maryland.   George Walker, Andrew Abernathy, Horace Burgess were among the 150 or so workers present.

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Sometime around the beginning of World War II, it appears that a law was enacted in the United States, similar to the registry law in Canada, where religious assemblies were required to register with the government. [Note: The Author has not verified this law.] Fred Hanowell, a older former worker, wrote Fred and Ruth Miller:  "About 1939, a law came out in the States and probably in other lands, that all religious gatherings where more than 5 or 7 people were met, such meetings were to be registered because 'communists' misused such gatherings for their purposes, a cloak for their secret actions. The chief or responsible workers hesitated to comply with that law... until some saints, fearing the consequences by not heeding the Law, begged the older workers to act correctly. (Rom. 13:1-7, 1 Peter 2:13-17). No doubt it was difficult to know off hand what to do, as we had 'no name as the churches or sects or denominations have. Jack Carroll, George Walker and others spoke with the authorities, especially because we had 'no name' in the sense the Law demanded for registry... those brethren who urged the workers to submit to law, if per chance they may come free. The authorities knew of the meetings, as the 'yearly conventions' could not be hid. All meetings were dealt with, the difficulty lying in the NAME. I am not sure, whether up to that time, 'letter-heads' were already printed and used as what the world would call 'official documents' as have been used since:  nevertheless, letters headed with, for instance, 'Miltown Conventions,' were used, whereupon, the authorities, because such letter-heads were used, pressed the workers or demanded that the word, 'Conventions' should be used to identify the meetings with. Evidently the word 'Christians' could not be used, as all churches and religious organizations call themselves by that name. Therefore the name finally registered was, 'CHRISTIAN CONVENTIONS REPRESENTING ASSEMBLIES OF CHRISTIANS ASSUMING THIS NAME ONLY'...The very word 'Convention' became as snare to those workers who 'secretly' registered the meetings of believers under that above given name. They told or even forbade the Authorities, that if inquiries be made, not to give information. The next of the 'name' came to be, because the workers said that 'the Conventions were that, from whence all was led or directed.'  Achan's theft (Joshua 7) came to light, nothing is hidden before GOD. Just how it got known about that 'Registry,' I know not, but I have a copy of an official letter written by the Authorities to a lady (one of the saints of Detroit who inquired about 'conscientious objection to military service,' as her son was to be drafted, evidently she had obtained information that a registration had taken place regarding the Conventions she attended... For years, that registry under that name remained hid, but when it got public it caused havoc among the believers in all countries. (Letter to Fred and Ruth Miller by Fred Hanowell, circa 1971)

A statement composed by George Walker was circulated around 1942 for the young men being drafted into the service, certifying they were in fellowship with Assemblies of Christians to be used when applying for Conscientious Objector status.  Surprisingly, the professing American men did not all follow a particular procedure when filling out their military forms.  To obtain C.O. classification, some professing men used the Certificates of Membership signed by the workers; while others filled in their forms with no help at all from the workers.  They gave a variety of names and explanations regarding their church affiliation.  Some encountered difficulty in obtaining Conscientious Objector status, while the applications of others sailed right on through without a hitch, depending on their local board.  Some of the soldiers in the WWII Reunion Memory Books recalled difficulties getting their C.O. classifications:

Carl D. Smith of Laredo, TX:   "…had a rough time with the C.O. Classification, and spent many hours being grilled and questioned about it, but was finally cleared…At Hammer Field, I was honored by a two hour grilling by a Major, then was told that you have something no other C.O. had that he had talked with before…was grilled four different times, was glad that the Lord was the one who did the answering through me."  (World War II Reunion Memory Book; Charleston, SC; April 19-21, 1995;  pp 2 & 67)

Carroll W. Leen of Auburn, CA: "Had trouble getting my C.O. so Jack Carroll made a special plea to the Draft Board for me." (World War II Reunion Memory Book; Charleston, SC; April 19-21, 1995;  p4, 47)

Irvin Wahlin of Afton, MN:  "…had difficulty getting C.O. status.  He was told that if he were in Germany they would shoot him.  His reply, “The wisdom of U.S. is to use rather than shoot a man.”…  “They ignored my C.O. papers and I was put in the Infantry.  I trained with men until the rifles were issued.  Then I was send to Ft. Lewis, VA and instead of the medics, they put me in the Engineers.  It was there I carried a crowbar for a couple of weeks while marching.  After that, I carried the flag!”  (World War II Reunion Memory Book; Sparks, Nevada  April 13-15, 1999; p7 & 88)

C. Burmeister of Walsh, IL:  “In 1941 I was inducted into the US Army at Des Moines, IO.  Tom Patterson, my father in the Gospel, helped me with my papers requesting non-combatant service.  In spite of that, I was assigned to Anti-tank Co. 1st Infantry 6th Armored Div and sent to Ft. Leonard Wood, MO.  I soon learned that they had no field medics at that date.  My request had ended up in File #13.  With Selective Service, the regular army hadn’t heard of such.  So I verbally asked for it.  The 1st Sgt sent me to the Company Commander and he ended up calling the Post Commander, an old General about to retire.  He spoke with authority, “Yes the Constitution provides for this status!” He instructed them to transfer me to the medics or to the Station Hospital.  I served in the Station Hosp. Dental Clinic until the spring of 1942.” (World War II Reunion Memory Book; Sparks, Nevada  April 13-15, 1999; p 31)

Not all the professing men elected to be conscientious objectors.  Jack Carroll, Western USA Overseer, outlined the position of the 2x2 organization regarding service to their country.  On September, 1942, at Olympia, Washington, he stated:

“We encourage all, young and old, to loyally serve their country and Government in some way at this time.  All are individually responsible for deciding the form of service they will render.  Liberty of conscience is given to each and all.  The form of service rendered is a personal and individual matter, and whether called to serve in the non-combatant or combatant capacity, no difference is made in our relationship or fellowship as brethren in Christ.  Some of our brethren are serving in the Navy, some in different branches of the Army and Air Forces, as well as in the Medical Corps. Certificates of membership, when necessary, will be given to those whose sincerity and  integrity are beyond question and who are willing to serve their country, regardless of difficulties or danger.”  [Notes of Statement made by John T. Carroll - Olympia, Washington, Sept. 4-7m 1942; Click Here to read]

In other words, Jack Carroll, overseer of the Western United States, said applying for noncombatant classification was NOT a Condition of Fellowship – it was a personal choice. This meant that a professing man would NOT be disfellowshipped or disqualified from taking part in meeting if he went into active combatant military service.

“Each child of God here will have to decide for himself or herself the form of service they will render.  We feel we cannot make a hard and fast law for any in this matter or interfere with the individual liberty of any child of God.  There are some, no doubt, who would like us to make some definite ruling about this but we cannot do so.

“We are up against the fact that, while some of our brethren in the Old Country have had difficulties with regard to bearing arms asking for some other service no matter how difficult or dangerous, which was granted by the Government; others of our brethren in full fellowship are serving in the Army and Navy in defence of their homes, families, and country.  In the light of this, we would like to repeat we are not making any ruling but leave it to the individual Christian to decide what he can do and how he can best serve his country at the present time.” [Statement by J.T.C. (John T. "Jack" Carroll) in Theodore, Saskatchewan, Canada - Click Here to See Letter]

How far reaching were the workers’ statements in this regard?  Was every 2x2 man of military age aware of their freedom of choice in this matter?  The USA was divided into two territories at that time.  Did this practice apply just to the men in Jack Carroll’s Western USA territory, or did they also apply to those in George Walker’s Eastern USA territory?  Did they apply in every country in this 2x2 system that’s reputed to be the world over?

Today, many 2x2s are under the impression that it is a universal tenant of their faith that 2x2 men serve their country under the classification of Conscientious Objector. Although some of the workers' statements seem to bless whatever choice the American 2x2 men made in this regard, their 2x2 peers in the fellowship often questioned the sincerity and devotion of any 2x2 men who elected not to be Conscientious Objectors.  They were often considered to be “less than” those men who chose to become a C.O.  A Vietnam veteran, John Frank Kelly, expressed his understanding:

“I no longer understood the objection to military weapons which most of the friends espoused. I had risked my life (and possibly my comrades' lives) in a manner that was apparently meaningless as far as any requirement of truth.  As the minister Helen Green had informed me, there was no such requirement. However, she failed to account for the strong social pressures involved from lay persons in the organization, and she certainly did nothing to correct or alter commonly held beliefs in the region where she had responsibility as senior worker. Why did the vast majority of friends entering the draft seek C.O. status? I sought such status in the belief I was obeying a tenant of a system of universal truth, which, by definition was a requirement for all people. It would be a while before I fully understood the distinction of my ideal truth from ‘the truth,’ but it was becoming evident during my reflections on this topic.” (Reflected Truth - Chapter 11 by Frank Kelly;  Compiled by Joan F. Daniel; Published by Research & Information Services, Sisters, OR, 1996)

On the other hand, those who elected to be C.O.’s were subject to being harshly judged and condemned by the world. The decision to be a C.O. sometimes brought about serious consequences:

“A stir was caused in the local press when  one registered as a CO in Great Britain during World War II.  Headlines such as, 'Local butcher refuses to fight. Boycott his shop,'  that kind of thing. Others who followed him registered and went in the forces as Storemen and the like to avoid having to take up arms. I never did understand how issuing guns was different from actually using them." (Neville Sanders, United Kingdom, 2001)

In some eras, pacifism was a very difficult and unpopular position to hold.  C.O.’s set themselves apart from societal norms.  However, after they completed Basic Training when soldiers were trained to use guns, the objectors were indistinguishable from combatants on the outside.  In many cases, the objector was not known by his fellow soldiers to be a Conscientious Objector.  He wore nothing to distinguish his position. Noncombatants were not required to carry arms, or to be trained in their use, but outside of this exception, they were in all other ways regular members of the army.  They wore the army uniform, received army pay and dependency allowances and were under army discipline.  However, some had it rough in Basic Training:

Aubrey Oldham of Albuquerque, NM:  “When guns were issued, I was issued a scrub brush and ordered to scrub the garbage can, while the other soldiers were on the drill field.  The temperature was 10 above zero and I was in light fatigues.  Every swipe left a sheet of ice on the can.  Also had to clean guns, rake the yard and unload trash.  I was eventually allowed to become Night Fireman where I kept the fire going through the bitter cold nights.” (World War II Reunion Memory Book; Sparks, Nevada  April 13-15, 1999; p66)

Lawrence Anderson of Black Canyon City, AZ:  "I went in as C.O. and trained with a gun, but refused one afterwards." (World War II Reunion Memory Book; Sparks, Nevada  April 13-15, 1999; p20)

From the testimony of Ken Paginton, a British deceased worker who pioneered Madagascar:  "Then war broke out, and I did 4-1/2 years non-combatant service in the Army.  There were several other professing boys in the same barracks as I was, and we managed to have a meeting together when we could. The time came when I felt the need to separate from them and face things alone.  So I had two years without the others, amongst soldiers, moving from barrack to barrack. I found I had to make a new stand each time.  Among regular soldiers, swearing and using God's name in vain is common place.  I remember when it came to bedtime the first night, I stood for a long time getting courage to kneel by my bed and pray, but I'm glad to say I got the victory. They soon respected me and would keep quiet while I prayed. Then at meal time, when I bowed my head to give thanks, they would tap me on the shoulder and say, "Aren't you well?"  When I told them I was giving thanks for my food, they exclaimed, "What, giving thanks for an Army meal?!" Then they would snatch away my plate, and I had to hold on to it when bowing my head.  It was a matter of 'watching and praying.'"  But after awhile, they gave me every respect."  

In January 25, 1943, the Secretary of War declared that all noncombatants would be assigned to medical units and would not be transferred outside the medical service, except at their own request. They were not kept from the front lines, and they faced all the dangers that ordinary soldiers faced.  They, too, were awarded for their service with the usual military awards.  An Ex-2X2, classified as 1-A-O (Conscientious Objector) wrote:  

“So instead of having a state of the art weapon to defend yourself, you got this really neat red cross target on your helmet and a conspicuous white arm band with a red cross, as well.  These made sure that the enemy would know for certain that here were targets that had no means of defending themselves and might have supplies that would be useful.  But to the wounded, you were like a god.  And over time, you learned a lot of tricks that did help get people back home.“

Just 12,000 of the C.O.’s in World War II chose the only other alternative available:  to engage in “work of national importance” under civilian direction, the Civilian Public Service Program, called CPS.  The noncombatants who served in CPS were not paid, nor were their dependants provided for. Their families and churches contributed to their support. They worked at a variety of projects without pay, including conservation and forestry camps, hospitals and training schools, university labs, agricultural experiment stations and farms, and as government survey crews.  They built roads, fought forest fires, constructed dams, planted trees, built contour strips on farms, served as guineas pigs for medical and scientific research, built sanitary facilities for hookworm-ridden communities, and cared for the mentally ill and juvenile delinquents. (The CPS Story by Albert N. Keim ISBN 1-56148-002-9)

Because the 2x2 sect was not included by the Bureau of Census’ publication, “Religious Bodies-1936,” when the draft was enacted prior to World War II, it was necessary for the group to apply for classification within the Selective Service System. The Selective Service System registered the sect as “Christian Conventions” and classified it as a "Church, religious sect or a religious organization, within the meaning of Section 622.44 of the Selective Service Regulations."  In a letter to O. D. Hawkins (See copy in TTT Photo Gallery) (Read retyped copy), the Selective Service System wrote:

“This Headquarters has issued a predetermination that Christian Conventions is a recognized church, religious sect, or a religious organization, within the meaning of Section 622.44 of the Selective Service Regulations.  This predetermination was based upon information procured directly from officials of the church; namely George Walker (overseer), 2350 East Susquahanna Avenue, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and others.  This necessity came out of the fact that the organization was not included by the Bureau of Census, United States Department of Commerce, in its publication, Religious Bodies-1936.”

George Walker, Overseer of Eastern USA, wrote a memorandum dated March 24, 1942 to the  U.S. Selective Service System,  which contained the following paragraph:

"...during the closing years of the last century and the first years of this century, a number of people in the British Isles and in America were exercised in heart and mind, through their study of the Scriptures, in regard to the methods of preaching and worship in the several churches of which they were then members. They were deeply concerned about spiritual things, and became fully convinced that there should be a return to the methods and purpose taught and carried out by Christ and His first disciples. This conviction led ...to religious meetings, and  in due time a number of these people went forth to devote their lives to the preaching of the Gospel."  Read original letter.

Click here to read a typed copy of his letter to the Selective Service .  It is not known whether or not George Walker actually composed this letter, however,  his signature is on it.  In comparing the signature with two signatures of George Walker in the guest book of a southern USA convention ground owner, the signatures appear to be the same.  Some with expertise in handwriting analysis also gave their opinion that the signatures were made by one and the same person.  [Click to view Guestbook].  

Note that George Walker stated that the purpose of his letter was:  "...for the purpose of enabling the Local Draft Boards to correctly classify Ministers of this Church throughout the United States who are subject to the Selective Service Laws."  It was NOT written so that professing men could receive non-combatant duties.  Perhaps they sought this exemption for workers in serving in the armed forces because of their belief that being an ordained "worker" is the highest calling for anyone in this life.  The 2x2 ministry per Geo. Walker was "above" military service, as it was "above" everything else possible. "Workers" without that conviction were usually deemed unworthy of ever being a "worker" on the East coast but this was not the case on the West coast. A man wrote George Walker:  "However, many of the workers may have accepted your idea with open arms because they didn't want to go to the countries to be shooting targets any more than anyone else did.   However, some of them, including George Kimeg, chose to be drafted, rather than benefit from your recognition program.  He then became rejected by you...for having done so."

Note that George Walker wrote, "a number of people in the British Isles and in America...became convinced that there should be a return to the methods and purpose taught and carried out by Christ and His first disciples."   In 1961, a man wrote a 30-page stinging criticism that was sent to hundreds of workers and friends, desperately trying to get the sect back on course.  He wrote of George Walker's statement above:  "The part 'in the British Isles and in America' was far too broad a statement, and was a deliberate lie. The part should have been put in two words, 'IN IRELAND.'  I had hoped George Walker was a true servant of God, but now I'm wondering..."  George Walker knew better.  He was with the group at its inception.  He was one of the three men who brought the sect to America in 1903, and there were no workers or friends in America before that time.  This is common knowledge.  However, he explicitly writes the U.S. Government something different, and deceives them into believing something that was not true, in order to get special concessions.

In World War II, Some professing men were only eighteen when they were inducted—and some had not even graduated from high school.  There were no college deferments.  "Everybody" went--very few escaped. They were given enormous responsibilities at a very early age. Many were  C.O.’s; many were medics; some of the C.O. papers turned up missing, or were ignored and many struggled to acquire CO status.  Some survived the Bataan Death  March (Adrian Oldham; Marcelo G. Jomok (World War II Reunion Memory Book; Sparks, Nevada  April 13-15, 1999; p14);  a few truthers died in the war, including the brother of William Lewis, deceased USA worker overseer.  Several Australia/New Zealand workers were imprisoned by the Japanese in Malaysia during WW2. Worker Alex Mitchell with 3 other workers were imprisoned somewhere, possibly Malaysia. (Alex mentions being a POW in these notes) There were also Dutch/South African workers imprisoned in Indonesia in those years, one named Willem Boshoff from S.A., and its possible his companion may have actually died in the prison camp. No other names or details are available.

If you know of other 2x2 men who were imprisoned in this war, please email the author, and their names will be included here.

Some endured imprisonment, including some workers who were interned at Los Banos Internment Camp located about 40 miles south of Manilla in the Philippines.  They were Willie Jamieson from Chirnside, Scotland; Ernest Stanley from Lower Farm, Ab Lench, near Evesham, England; Leo Stancliff of Bakersfield, California; Cecil Barrett of England who migrated to New Zealand; and Herman Beaber of Hydesville, California (Herman was the author’s uncle).  Reportedly Cecil and Ernest were in Japan when the war broke out, moved to the Philippines in 1941, and were there only a short time when they were imprisoned.  Willie Jamieson  related his experiences in May, 1945, and these notes were circulated widely. Herman kept a diary during their time in prison and many copies have been circulated, both a condensed version and the original.  His son, John S. Beaber, has made his Father's diary available on-line.  It is titled: Deliverance – It has come!   His webpage was accepted in the honorable POW/MIA Ring located at: http://ithascome.bravehost.com/index.html . Accounts by the other workers there are available on this website also.  

The workers were confined to their home and  restricted from moving about the city, but were allowed to have religious services, from January 15, 1942 until they were taken to prison at Los Banos on July 8, 1944, along with all the other American missionaries and priests and nuns in the area.  While the diary does not record that any of the four were tortured physically, they  nearly starved, all had beriberi and were anemic when released (except for Ernest Stanley, who was imprisoned at Santo Tomas).  Many in the camp died from disease and slow starvation.  Herman left the U.S. in 1940 weighing 202 lbs at 6'3" and he weighed 140 lbs when he was rescued in 1945.  Herman wrote in his diary for December 11, 1941:  "Several of our friends from Pinagkaisahan are fighting in the front lines."  This would indicate the Philippine friends were not classified as non-combatants.  Whether or not such an option were available to them is not known.

The states under Jack Carroll's overseership did not have a ban on radio.  One reason given was so they could hear news and current events regarding the Pacific War Theater where the workers were imprisoned.

Photos have been provided by John Beaber taken soon after the workers liberation from Los Banos (Feb. 1945) of: Ernest, Cecil, Leo, Herman,Willie and two unknown soldiers.  The workers were rescued on February 23, 1945, when American soldiers set free 3,700 American prisoners in Manilla, Philippines, in a daring guerilla and paratooper rescue, just one day before they were all to be executed by the Japanese.

Willie Jamieson said:  "On the morning of Feb. 23rd, we saw 9 American planes coming over, very low.  When they got straight over the camp we saw the hatches open and paratroopers jump out. They jumped out at even intervals.  You know, that was one of the most beautiful sights I've ever seen, to see those paratroopers drop in front of our barracks.  Five minutes after they landed, they started fighting and half an hour later the Japs were overcome."

Herman wrote:  "...at 7:00 a.m. sharp, we heard and saw nine large transport planes flying low, and passing close to the camp; perhaps one mile to the east.  Even as we all watched, we saw doors open and paratroopers came tumbling out.  OH WHAT A SIGHT!  With a tropical sunrise for a background, we saw about 150 parachutes open one after another and settle slowly earthward out of our sight behind the distant trees.  We knew help had come but had little time to contemplate this good, even before rifle fire commenced to the west of our camp.  It was guerillas with American Officers who had been waiting there for hours...Bullets whizzed and buzzed through the camp.  I was hugging the floor, looking out under the large crack beneath the door at the FiIlipinos and Americans sneaking into the camp, their rifles ready.  The guerillas...defeated the Japs in quick order.  It was over in less than an hour.  All the Japanese guards were killed, I believe.  Planes hovered overhead.  As the firing died down a bit, we heard the roar of motors...then we saw the large amphibious tractors (amtracs)...that had come across the water, down the lake, for the express purpose of rescuing us.  Deliverance – It has come!”

The March 5, 1945, issue of Life Magazine  (pp 25-29) ran a story titled “Santo Tomas is Delivered.”  On pages 26-27, are photos of the brother worker, Ernest Stanley, "a missionary who worked as an interpreter during the talks between Colonel Brady and the Japanese."   After much searching, the author now owns a copy of this Life magazine. Reportedly, after his release, Ernest Stanley worked for the American Army in Japan as an interpreter.  He did not return to the work, and married a Japanese singer he met while working as an interpreter.  She professed for a short time, but dropped out.  They took up residence in Japan and adopted a son.  Ernest died in 1990 in the 2x2 faith; and his wife also died in 1990.  He was credited with being very helpful to the American POWs.  Reportedly, his loyalty was questioned after the war by officials, but he was completely exonerated and praised.  A photo of Ernest and his wife taken about 1982 is on the website:  Deliverance-It Has Come.

Leo, Willie and Herman all returned to the work. Herman returned to preach in the Philippines, but left the work in 1951.  He  married Blanche Berry from Henderson, Texas (the author’s aunt), and adopted two children, John and Esther.  Herman died February 5, 2001, at the age of 93, and is buried in Laurel Land Cemetery in Dallas, Texas. Willie Jamieson succeeded Jack Carroll as overseer of some of the Western USA states and passed away October 11, 1974, at age 93.  He is buried at Pacific Crest Cemetery, Redondo Beach, CA.  2,500 attended his funeral, according to the Whittier Daily News, October 17, 1974. (Leo "continued to preach in the Philippines for 20 years, 25 in all.  I also worked in Guam for some years and other of the south Pacific Islands." (from Leo's Letter to Harry Krumm, 4/22/97)  Leo passed away in October, 2005.  After his release in 1945, Cecil Barrett returned to New Zealand to recuperate. In 1947, he returned to Japan and labored in the work there until 1964 when he returned home to NZ and preached til his death in 1968, aged 65 years.  Additional details about any of these men are welcome. (E-mail the author at truth@earthlink.net.)

In World War II, American ministers of religion were entitled to complete exemption (Classification IV-D).  In other words, ministers were not required to serve in the armed forces.  Some letters are in the Photo Gallery which were used to substantiate the brother workers were “ordained” ministers, when applying for a ministerial exemption.

“The Ministers of this body of Christians and representative members of each local group assemble annually in conventions…At these annual conventions, young men desiring to enter the Ministry and devote their lives to the preaching of the Gospel have their qualifications considered and if counted worthy of a place in the Ministry, are ordained, given a definite field of labor, in fellowship with, and under the guidance and instruction of an older Minister.  Ministers are supported by the free will offerings of the members of these Assemblies of Christians."  (Undated letter on Western Christian Convention Stationery.)

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World War II - Miscellaneous

CONVENTIONS during WWII:  “During the war, the conventions (in Great Britain) were stopped, as the white tents could easily be seen from the air by enemy aircraft.  Instead, special meetings were held similar to those held at Christmas.”  (Neville Sanders, United Kingdom, 2001)

During the early days of the war, the UK Government decided to evacuate English children.  Some Canadian friends opened their homes to these children.  Jack Carroll wrote:  “We are glad to know that a number have offered to care for children that may come over from the British Isles…”  (Neville Sanders, United Kingdom, 2001)

There were mixed feelings about those left at home, who worked in ammunition factories and aircraft plants, which aided in the taking of lives in the war.

“It always struck me as strange though, that while no one was supposed to bear arms and kill, it was acceptable, even laudable, to produce munitions.  In Montreal, all the Northern Electric (now Nortel) plants were converted to munitions plants and most of the friends, mainly female, worked there.  For reaching quotas, employees were awarded lapel pins which consisted of a small caliber shell with a  pin attached.  The friends wore these pins very proudly, even to meeting!”  (Statement by Leigh Townsend, Longueuil, Quebec, Canada)

The author’s mother professed and worked for 2-1/2 years as an inspector for Gulf Oil, at a shell-loading plant.  The shells manufactured there went right to the front lines. She wore a blue uniform, the color designated for inspectors, assessorized with black stockings!  The workers did not comment to her about her employment.  Many of the friends had better jobs due to the war.

“The workers preached at my Dad's funeral but never once talked about him putting his life on the line to fight for their freedom against the Hitler evil of W.W. II  or the metal pieces that came out of his body 40 years after the war from the shell fragments when his leg was almost blown off. They patched him up and sent him back into hell on earth   It’s odd how the workers kind of skirt the issue of people in the 2x2's system that have been in battle.”  (Statement by Robin White)

There have been several reunions of American 2x2 veterans.  In 1989, the first reunion held for the Camp Barkeley, Texas veteran servicemen was in Sioux Falls, South Dakota.  Mr. & Mrs. Gandy had kept a book of the boys’ names who had passed through Camp Barkeley, TX.  (World War II Reunion - 1989 Memory Book  - Camp Barkeley, TX )

In 1992, Three years later, at the same place, the group met again at Soux Falls, SD, and opened the gathering to any servicemen who served in WWII and is professing.  (World War II Reunion - 1992 Memory Book –  Sioux Falls, SD )

In April, 1995, a reunion was held in Charleston, South Carolina. “Effort was made to contact ALL who were veterans now of same faith.”  (World War II Reunion Memory Book; Charleston, SC; April 19-21, 1995; Pioneer Printing Co., 1712 Macklind Ave, St. Louis, MO 63110)

In April, 1999, a reunion was held at Sparks, Nevada.  ALL who were veterans and are now of same faith were included.  (World War II Reunion Memory Book; Sparks, Nevada  April 13-15, 1999)

It cannot be determined from studying these booklets for the 2x2 veterans reunion memory books just how many professing 2x2 men elected to enter the service as C.O.’s; nor is it possible to tell how many of those shown were professing when they entered the military.  Practically every branch of service is represented;  Army, Navy, Marines, Coast Guard, Air Force.  Some were drafted and others enlisted.  Without taking a count, the majority of the men who wrote and are pictured seemed to have served in a medical capacity.

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The Korean Conflict

The Korean War began on June 25, 1950, when troops from Communist-ruled North Korea invaded South Korea.  Fourteen UN countries sent troops, and 41 countries sent military equipment and supplies to South Korea, with the U.S. sending more than 90% of troops, equipment and supplies.  The Korean war ended July 27, 1953, a little over 3 years after it started.

At least one professing man, the late Robert E. Neely, went to prison in the Korean conflict: “During this time (Korean conflict), I was in prison for 23 months, due to problems with my C.O. status.” (World War II Reunion Memory Book; Charleston, SC; April 19-21, 1995; p 58).

Reportedly, there were reunions held for the Korean Veterans in San Antonio, Texas, in 1996 and 2001.   Additional information regarding the Korean war and 2x2 veterans is welcome. Email the author

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The Vietnam War

Click Here

Divided into North and South Vietnam, the Communist ruled the North, and their president was Ho Chi Minh.  In 1957, the Viet Cong began to rebel against the South Vietnam government headed by President Ngo Dinh Diem.  North Vietnam supported the revolt. The war grew into a major conflict and battles raged in South Vietnam.  South Vietnam President Diem was murdered. In 1965, the U.S. began sending ground combat troops to Vietnam and began bombing North Vietnam.  American participation in this war continued until 1973. South Vietnam, the Communists and the U.S. signed a cease-fire agreement and the U.S. removed the last of its troops.  But the Communists soon launched another offensive against South Vietnam and in April, 1975, Saigon fell to the Communists.

The Selective Service Act passed in 1948 and amended in 1951, required that conscientious objection be based on religious belief and training that included belief in a Supreme Being. A series of U.S. Supreme Court decisions during the Vietnam War (1959-1975), removed this religious requirement and allowed objection based on a deeply held ethical system, with no reference to a Supreme Being; but refused to accept opposition to the VIETNAM WAR as a basis for exemption.  During the Viet Nam War, an American male citizen could be classified by his local draft board as a Conscientious Objector if he was opposed to war in any form, whether because of his religious training and belief or from sociological, philosophical, or purely personal views.  By 1970, during the Vietnam conflict, 21,500 conscientious objector classifications had been approved, which was about 1/1000 of the total number of military registrations (22 million) at that time. (Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2000 at:  http://encarta.msn.com)

The Selective Service Act of 1967 required all men between the ages of 18 and 26 to register for service. The regular exemptions, along with educational deferments were granted. These loopholes and other technicalities tended to discriminate against working-class and poor men, and thus a higher percentage from these groups were drafted.  Due to this perceived discrimination by class and also because of the great unpopularity of the Vietnam War, conscription became a major social issue. There were numerous demonstrations at draft boards and induction centers. Many young men evaded the draft through technicalities or fraud; thousands fled the country or went to prison.

In the Vietnam war, only the Army drafted, and all those requesting C.O. classification went through Ft. Sam Houston in San Antonio, Texas for their basic training and medical training.  If a man was a military officer, or was serving in another branch of service than the U.S. Army, then he was not a C.O.—it was just that simple.

Exempt status was requested for the brother workers.  It may have been granted to some of the  workers, but it was denied to Dominic (Nick) Enrietta.  Dominic professed in 1962; graduated from high school in 1963; went into the work in Sept, 1964; was a worker for 3 years when he was drafted at age 22. He claimed that “Selective Service officials have unjustly refused his claim for draft deferment as a minister.”  He went to court in a lawsuit in 1967 and lost, and was inducted into the army as a C.O.  After 6 months at Ft. Sam Houston, he was stationed in Korea.  After his stint in the army, Dominic returned to the work in Colorado, and was last known to be in the work in Italy.  Click Here to read the following newspaper articles about Enrietta:

1.  July 12, 1967 - Denver Post (Denver, Colorado)

2.  Circuit Preacher Seeks Ministerial Exemption; No Author Given
July 12, 1967, Pg 5 - Rocky Mountain News (Denver, Colorado)

3.  Minister Asks for Deferment; No Author Given
July 15, 1967, Pg 1 - Rocky Mountain News (Denver, Colorado)
Lawsuit Puts Sect in Shunned Limelight By Dick Prouty

At least one other 2x2 soldier received wide publicity during the Vietnam war era. His name is David Kropp, of Caddo, Oklahoma, son of James and Kathleen Kropp.  He became prominent after Tom Tiede, a nationally syndicated newspaper reporter, interviewed him in Cu Chi, Vietnam, from the perspective of his being a Conscientious Objector who was serving as a front-line combat medic in the 25th Infantry.  The resulting article was published on the front page of countless USA newspapers around the country during 1966-67.  For years afterwards, strangers at conventions would recognize him from his newspaper photo, which many kept folded in their Bibles. He was also the recipient of two bronze stars and two purple hearts.

While in Vietnam, a soldier named Paul questioned David Kropp regarding God and salvation.
David shared some of his beliefs with Paul, but felt inadequate. "The truth" did not give David the authority, power or knowledge to lead this man to a saving knowledge of Jesus.  Here was a fellow comrade earnestly wanting to know God--and yet, even in this exceptional situation, David's hands were tied because of the way the 2x2 system is constructed.  Since the 2x2s believe the only channel (way/method) to eternal life is to go through the workers, members cannot bring others to a saving knowledge of God by themselves--nor are they instructed in how to share their beliefs.  And it wasn't possible for a medic and his comrade both serving on the front lines in the Vietnam war to attend a series of gospel meetings or even visit the workers who were in Saigon... before Paul was killed.   Incidents like this are the reason some no longer believe that the 2x2 system is God's ONLY right way.

A reunion was held in June, 1992 for the 2x2 soldiers who went through Ft. Sam Houston between 1965 and 1972 in San Antonio, Texas, and a Memory book was printed.  At one time there were 165  2x2 soldiers based at Ft. Sam Houston.  Without a church name, the 2x2 soldiers were forced to use creativity to find others on the base of like faith.  They watched for bowed heads in the mess hall and used code names:

“I remember Robert Appleman going up and down the rows in several different barracks, repeatedly asking if anyone knew George Walker.  He quickly stopped when a big black man got up and said, “I is George Walker!” (Lloyd Harris p 43)

“…he was walking through his barracks and saw a words-only Hymn Book on a foot locker.  He looked at it to make sure it was one of our books.  He then looked at the fellow in the bunk, which was Danny (Thompson), and he was colored.  Jim was surprised, but found out Danny was professing and was most pleased to meet him!  Our friends in San Antonio remembered Danny as the first colored professing man to go through Ft. Sam.”  (Robert Anderson, p 3)  NOTE:  Steve Pierson, a colored worker, also went through Ft. Sam.

Many Vietnam veterans wrote of seeing the brother worker, Fred Allen, in Saigon, and some attended conventions in Saigon. There were five professing men killed in Vietnam, the first was Timothy E. Workman in late 1966 or Jan., 1967;  also Ronald C. Stallings, Dec., 1967; Ronald A. Slane, March, 1968;  Allan E. Schwartz, Oct., 1968; Donald W. Sperl, 1968.

Reference:  Ft. Sam Houston Army Reunion 1965-1972 Memory Book; San Antonio, Texas; June 17-19, 1992; Pioneer Printing Co., 1712 Macklind Ave, St. Louis, MO 63110

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Red poppies are the emblem of Remembrance for Veterans who died in the service of their country for the British Empire and Allied Countries.  The following poem was the source for poppies becoming this symbol.  Today red poppies are worn in remembrance on November 11 every year in to honor the dead of both World Wars, Korea, Malaya and Vietnam.  In Flanders Field remains to this day one of the most memorable war poems every written.  Every Remembrance Day, the British Legion lays a wreath on the author's grave as a tribute.  

FLANDERS FIELD
BY JOHN McCRAE

In Flanders Field the poppies blow
Between the crosses, row on row,
that mark the place; and in the sky
the larks, still bravely singing, fly
scarce heard amid the guns below.

We are the Dead.
Short days ago we lived,
felt dawn, saw sunset glow,
loved and were loved,
and now we lie in Flanders Fields.

Take up your quarrel with the foe:
to you from failing hands we throw the torch;
be yours to hold it high,
if ye break faith with us who die
We shall not sleep,
though poppies grow in Flanders Fields.

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Reportedly, a second reunion for Ft. Sam Houston veterans was held July 4-8, 2001 at San Antonio.  

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Realization - a "Requirement" Is Not Necessary By John Frank Kelly

“I went into war (Vietnam War in 1970) with virtually no means of self defense because of a high ideal - that of serving a loving God who abhorred all forms of violence among humanity. I was disappointed and disheartened as I learned that my beliefs were not universally practiced in 'the truth'.

“Later in my Vietnam tour, after leaving the combat assignment, I attended the convention held in Saigon. While there, I had the opportunity to observe a Korean soldier* who was stationed near the workers’ quarters where the convention was being held. At first, I thought he did not profess, mainly because he wore a weapon - a military-issued .45 automatic pistol to the convention meetings. I soon learned that this person was much respected and revered as a professing person - a 'godly' man. Since he held a non-combat job, I saw no good reason that he should have a weapon, regardless of his religious beliefs. (The streets of Saigon at that time were safer than many portions of major cities in the U.S today. As I recall, I had observed other Korean soldiers about the city without weapons. The safety in Saigon was, of course, in stark contrast to the situation posed in the Vietnamese countryside.) I was upset to learn of his professing status. Apparently the workers saw no problem with his weapon.

“I had literally presented myself for sacrifice, partly in order to meet the requirements for 'eternal life,' yet I was no more (and probably less) in favor with the all-powerful workers than this Korean who refused such sacrifice. My confusion became anger. Where was the ideal of universal truth that I expected?

“I later learned that other professing people had modified their objections to the use of weapons--at least under certain conditions. Not only did professing people carry such weapons as the .45 automatic pistol officially allowed medical corpsmen, but attitudes in civilian life certainly allowed self-defense without any consequences from the organization. I had heard meeting elders boast how they would shoot to kill any burglars who dared to enter their house…

“The justification for the Vietnam war given by several senior workers was that the war resulted in an extension of the truth. Thus, on the one hand, workers were at least tacitly encouraging people to abstain from carrying weapons; on the other hand, they were approving--even encouraging--waging war which resulted in the loss of life.

“I should make it clear that in spite of my disappointment with the seeming ease with which C.O. status was dismissed by some in the organization, my status was warranted; I did hold such objections seriously in my own thoughts at the time of my military service. These ideas were likely influenced by my associates during adolescence, and their belief in such a requirement. I have since modified my thoughts and currently believe that self defense is legitimate. I no longer consider myself a conscientious objector, nor would I consider such status if entering the military. I see national defense as defending lives and property held in common by all citizens; thus it is one facet of self defense.

After enduring a grueling night believing he would die on the mission assigned to them the next day, this was Frank’s deduction:  “My conclusion, during this long night of self examination and fear of imminent death, was that what I knew as truth was nothing but a series of conventions for behavior. Any meaning for dying was irrelevant. It would take a while for me to fully face, and act upon, the consequences of this realization.”  (Reflected Truth - Chapter 11 by Frank Kelly;  Compiled by Joan F. Daniel; Published by Research & Information Services, Sisters, OR, 1996, pp  62-164)

*from 1966 to 1972, some 340,000 Korean troops had direct combat experience in Vietnam.”
(The Republic of Korea (South Korea) by David I. Steinberg, p110)

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Why are the 2x2s Pacifists?

Why do most 2x2s elect to serve as noncombatants? To be Conscientious Objectors?  The national loyalty of a 2x2 is overridden by worldwide loyalty to the 2x2 group as a whole.  They see their church as a family of individuals united around common beliefs and practices worldwide who have no conceivable reason to kill each other.  Violence within their fellowship group is an abomination to them.

As a combatant soldier bearing arms, it’s conceivable that an American professing man could kill other professing men who were serving in the armies of other countries in the world.  There were 2x2 men in other nations; in the German army, as well as the Japanese army.  A tenant of their faith is to love their brothers and sisters in Christ, regardless of their nationality.  Some 2x2 soldiers saw it as inconsistent to profess to love their brothers and yet go to war bearing arms against them.

Many American 2x2 men specifically requested noncombatant service, as they were willing to serve in some military capacity, so long as they were not required to kill.  The following scriptures are often cited as reasons cited:

(1)  Thou shalt not kill
(2)  Vengeance is mine, saith the Lord, I will repay
(3)  Christ’s teaching to turn the other cheek
(4)  Christ’s admonition to Peter to put up his sword
(5)  If my kingdom were of this world, then would my servants fight.

“Thou shalt not kill,” Matthew 5:21.  This is a quotation of Exodus 20:13, where the Hebrew word used is "murder" (ratzach).  In Hebrew, there is a clear distinction between the two words “murder” and “kill.”  The Hebrew passage does NOT use the word “kill” (harag).  The first (ratzach) means premeditated murder, while the second (harag) encompasses everything from justifiable homicide, manslaughter and accidental killing, to taking the life of an enemy soldier in war. The Biblical commandment very precisely prohibits murder, but not the taking of a life in defense of oneself or others.  The Greek language also has separate words for "murder" and "kill," and it is the Greek word for “murder” (NOT "kill'') which is used in Matthew 5:21.  Therefore, some believe Matthew 5:21 should have been translated, “Do not murder,'' rather than “Do not kill.''

"Do not resist evil," Matthew 5:39.  If Jesus really meant this, His statement contradicts other scriptures such as, "Hate what is evil" (Romans 12:9), and "Resist the devil" (James 4:7).  Jesus was quoting Psalm 37:1, 8, and Proverbs 24:19, with slight variations.  He was not talking about how to deal with violence in this verse.  He was not teaching that one should lie down in the face of evil or submit to evil; but rather, that we should not try to get back at, or take revenge on a quarrelsome neighbor.  He was expressing an important principle which applies to our relationships with friends and neighbors--NOT when we are confronted with a murderer, rapist, or facing the enemy in war.

“Turn the other cheek,” Matt 5:39.  The verses which follow this one are illustrations of how we should react to a hostile neighbor. If a friend insults us by slapping us on the cheek, we are not to slap him back, but instead to offer our other cheek.  When taken in context, this statement has nothing to do with battlefield situations, defending oneself against a murderer or resisting evil. It is an illustration of how to deal with an angry neighbor or a personal enemy.

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QUESTION:  What classification will the 2x2 men seek in the battle of Armageddon, the war of all wars??  Will it be C.O. status?

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Some believe the workers have other reasons for encouraging pacifism, or C.O. status:

“After having the opportunity to reflect on the contradictions regarding C.O. status for several years, I have come to believe that this was a way to set members of the organization apart from others in the world in a fashion similar to their requirements for women's hair and dress. Jesus certainly made a case for nonviolence, both through His personal actions, and the rebuke He gave Peter in the garden prior to His crucifixion. The ministers never used this as a requirement, or even a desirable attitude. As I later realized, the love that filled Jesus' life was largely ignored by the organization, so it should have been no surprise that such reasons were not used for justification.”

“I would speculate that there are probably two reasons the ministers allowed and tacitly encouraged members to avail themselves of C.O. status. First, since all U.S. Army draftees having the status went through basic training at Ft. Sam Houston, Texas (at least during the Vietnam era), a common experience was available for professing people entering the military during times when compulsory service was required. Unless an alternative job became available, all conscientious objectors became medical corpsmen after training at Ft. Sam, which is, or was at that time, the medical training center for the Army. (Other options were limited, since upon entering military service, draftees having C.O. status were asked to sign an agreement that they would never seek extension of their military service beyond what would be required by the Government.) Because of this common experience from Army training and distinction as a C.O., the bond between members became strong, and therefore a factor of social control was present.

“The second reason C.O. status was useful to the organization was that soldiers so classified would have opportunity to explain to others why they were so different from other people. Such attention from outsiders increased the chances of luring other soldiers  to  meetings.  (In combat situations, this sometimes produced hostile feelings towards the CO; some soldiers did not appreciate that a medical corpsman would not defend himself, or perhaps even a wounded comrade. It is possible, however, that the apparent strength of conviction needed to retain such status might appeal to others.)

“I am convinced after careful observation and agonizing over the issue that commitment to nonviolence had little, if anything, to do with the seemingly required C.O. status for young males facing the draft.”  (Reflected Truth - Chapter 11 by Frank Kelly;  Compiled by Joan F. Daniel; Published by Research & Information Services, Sisters, OR, 1996, pp 162-166)

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Sources:
Conscience in America-A Documentary History of Conscientious Objection in America 1757-1967; pub 1968;  Edited by Lillian Schlissel

Conscription of Conscience – The American State and the Conscientious Objector 1940-1947;  by Mulford Q. Sibley and Philip E. Jacob, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, NY, 1952

War, Conscience, and Dissent (1967) by G. C. Zahn

The CPS Story by Albert N. Keim ISBN 1-56148-002-9

Conscientious Objectors and the Second World War by Cynthia Eller
ISBN  0-275-93805-0; Praeger Publishers, NY

Pacifism and Conscientious Objection (1945) by G. C. Field

King and Country Call - New Zealanders, Conscription and the Great War by Paul Baker; Auckland University Press, 1988)

Selective Service System:   http://www.sss.gov/

World War II Reunion - 1989 Memory Book  - Camp Barkeley, TX
World War II Reunion - 1992 Memory Book –  Sioux Falls, SD

World War II Reunion Memory Book; Charleston, SC; April 19-21, 1995;
Pioneer Printing Co., 1712 Macklind Ave, St. Louis, MO 63110

World War II Reunion Memory Book; Sparks, Nevada  April 13-15, 1999
Ft. Sam Houston Army Reunion 1965-1972 Memory Book; San Antonio, Texas

Reflected Truth - Compiled by Joan F. Daniel; Published by Research & Information Services, Sisters, OR, 1996

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